TNFs exert their effects by binding to their specific receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2. The binding of TNF-alpha to TNFR1 can activate multiple signaling pathways, including the NF-kB pathway, which is associated with cell survival and proliferation, as well as the caspase cascade that leads to apoptosis. TNFR2 is mainly involved in immune cell regulation and tissue regeneration.
