TGF-β exhibits a dual role in cancer, acting as both a tumor suppressor and a tumor promoter, depending on the context and stage of the disease. In the early stages of cancer, TGF-β functions as a tumor suppressor by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis. However, in advanced stages, cancer cells often develop mechanisms to evade these suppressive effects. At this point, TGF-β contributes to tumor progression by promoting invasion, metastasis, and immune evasion.
